Figures of Speech by Eguriase S. M Okaka

 

FIGURES OF SPEECH

BY EGURIASE S. M. OKAKA

 

A figure of speech is a linguistic pattern in which ordinary words are used in extraordinary ways to express deeper and effective meanings. Such linguistic pattern is more native to English Literature; but for its relevance in English Language examinations, especially in relation to doing continuous writings, and answering questions as to grammatical functions of words; we shall give it a treatment here.

 By and large there, in the main, seven figure of speech, each with its own figurative-type:

 

·        Figures of Similarity - With the figurative-types of Simile, Metaphor Allegory, Parable, Fable.

·        Figure of Contrast – With figurative-types of Antithesis, Parallel, Epigram, Oxymoron, Paradox, Climax, Anti-Climax (Bathos).

·        Figures of Association – With the figurative-types of Metonymy, Synecdoche, Hypallage, (Transferred Epithet), Allusion.

·        Figures of Imagination – With the figurative-types of personification, Personal metaphor, Pathetic, fallacy, Apostrophe, vision. Hyperbole.

·        Figures of Indirectness – With the figurative-types of innuendo, Irony, Sarcasm, Satire, Wit, Humor, Euphemism, Litotes, Periphrasis.

·        Figures of Sound – With the figurative-types Onomatopoeia, Alliteration, Pun, (Paronomasia). Assonance, Rhythm.

·        Figures of Construction – With the figurative-types of Interrogation, Exclamation, Chiasmus Zeugma, Hendiadys, Anacoluthon, Aposiopesis.

 

FIGURE OF SIMILARITY

Figure of similarity are figurative terms of language, by which we are able to compare two things, ideas, etc., in many forms.

 

SIMILE

A simile is a figure of indirect comparison between two things that are able in one part, and otherwise unlike. Such words as like, as, etc., usually introduces a simile.

Examples:

·        “The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold” – Byron.

·        “Red as a rose is she” – Coleridge.

 

METAPHOR

A metaphor is a figure of direct comparison of two things, more or less in a non-formal way.

Examples:

·        Joel is a lion.

·        “The entire world’s stage” – Shakespeare

 

ALLEGORY

An allegory is a figure of extended extensive comparison of one subject to another, a comparison in which one subject described is compared to another subject understood.

Example:

·        In Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s progress, the famous journey made by a hero was to be understood as the life of an ordinary Christian described.

 

PARABLE

A parable is a short story of comparison in which the story and its meaning are comparatively paralleled in significance.

Examples are:

·        The parable of the Sower.

·        The Good Samaritan.

 

FABLE

A fable is also a short story of comparison, it often with explicit didactic or moral sense at the end. In fables animal characters more or less replace human character.

Examples:

·        The Tortoise and the Calabash of wisdom

·        The Squirrel and the Animals

 

FIGURES OF CONTRAST

Figures of contrast are figurative forms of language, by which we are able to contrast two things or ideas or all, in many forms.

 

ANTITHESIS

When two dividing things or ideas are contrasted, so much so that each appears as striking as the other, the figurative form involved is called antithesis.

Examples:

·        “United we stand divided we fall”.

·        “God made the country, man made the town”.

 

PARALLEL

Parallel is only a type of antithesis, in which the contrast between two things or ideas becomes very clear side by side.

Example:

·        “How far that little candle throws its beams so shines a good deed in a naughty world.”

 

EPIGRAM

Epigram is a short and succinct expression, contrast in meaning and sharp in it address.

Examples:

·        To be clever is good, to be brave is best.

·        To look is much less easy than to see.

 

OXYMORON

Oxymoron is a type of epigram in which two contrasting meanings which immediately call attention are paralleled with good effect.

Examples:

·        “Thus idly busy rolls their world away.”

·        He was ignorantly learned.

 

PARADOX

Paradox is a language of contrast which on the face of it seems untrue but which, on a second thought, suddenly becomes true.

Examples:

·        “The child is the father of a man.”

·        “Cowards die many times before their death.” – Shakespeare.

 

CLIMAX

Climax is a figurative-type in contrast in which assertive or declarative words are arranged in such a way that, by degree of ascension, thought and meaning, by successive steps, are moved from lower to higher points of significance.

Examples:

·        “I came, I saw, I conquered” – Ceaser.

·        “Some are born great, some achieve greatness and some have greatness trust upon them.” – Shakespeare.

·        The beautiful girl I saw stole my pencil, my money and my heart.

 

ANTI-CLIMAX OR BATHOS

Anti-Climax or bathos is the opposite of climax.

Examples:

·        “He lost his wife, his child, his house-hold goods, and his dog at one fell swoop of fate.

·        He played with his life, his job and his ball.

 

FIGURE OF ASSOCIATION OR CONNECTION

Figures of association or connection are the figurative forms of language, by which we are able to connect and associate ideas of things.

 

METONYMY

Metonymy is a kind of figurative baptism in which by the association of something to what suggest it. We are able to give the name of the latter to the former.

Examples:

·        “The pen mightier than the sword”

·        “Scepter and crown must tumble down.”

·        “Shakespeare is the greatest work of arts.”

 

SYNEDOCHE

Synecdoche is also a kind of figurative baptism of association but in which the name given to something is not an accompaniment of it (does not suggest it).

Examples:

·        Goodness and Mercy was his constant companion.

·        “No useless coffin enclosed his breast.”

·        “A Daniel comes to judgment.”

·        “Man does not live by bread only.”

 

HYPALLAGE OR TRANSFERRED EPITHET

This is a figure of association in which the modification or qualification of somebody is transferred to something.

Example:

·        “The ploughman homeward plods his weary way.”

·        He sat all night on a restless chair.

 

ALLUSION

Allusion is a figure of connection in which by sense of expression or association, a reference to a famous event or person is made.

Examples:

·        What needs my Shakespeare for his honored bones?

·        The labor of an age in plied stones – Milton.

·        Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest.

·        Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country’s blood – Gray

 

FIGURE OF IMAGINATION

Figure of imagination are the figurative forms of language, by which we are able to, by drawing on imagination, move thought and meaning from one area to the other.

 

PERSONIFICATION

When by drawing on our imagination of the nature of things, we personify lifeless things or abstract ideas, by predicating life and understanding to them, the figure of speech involved is called personification.

Examples:

·        The moon smiled.

·        “Death lays his icy hand on kings.”

 

PERSONAL METAPHOR

This is a figure of imagination by which by direct degrees, we give life to inanimate things in our meaning in relation to them. But, this is not a way of saying or showing that personification and personal metaphor is one and the same thing. This is not true. For abstract ideas can never become person under personal metaphor.

Examples:

·        The thirsty earth.

·        A smiling book.

·        An angry cloud.

 

APOSTROPHE

Just like personal metaphor, an apostrophe is a unique type of personification whereby we are able to interject a person address of a present or absent person or object in discourse. But whereas personification is usually given in the third person, the apostrophe is always given in the second person.

Example:

·        England! With thy entire fault I love thou still.”

·        Jerusalem! You who have killed all the prophets sent to you.

·        “Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean, roll.

 

VISION

Vision is a figure of imagination in which we give description to a vision-event or a vision-sense, that is, in which we describe something which, though absent from discourse, yet can be metalized or visualized.by our reader or listener.

Example:

·        Defeated in the court-case, Adamu Audu took his walking stick and went home.

 

HYPERBOLE

This is the figure of imagination whereby a special form of exaggeration or amplification of thought or meaning is permitted in discourse. Such an exaggeration is special, because even though it is an exaggeration. It is not meant to be taken as exaggeration.

Examples:

·        Was this the tongue that spoke a million words?

·        “Ten thousand saw I at a glance.”

 

FIGURE OF INDIRECTNESS

Figures of indirectness are the figurative forms of linguistic expression by which we are able to make indirect references in our sense of things.

 

INNUENDO OR INSINUATION

When something, usually of declining value or worth indirectly hinted or suggested in our expressions, the figure of indirect reference involved is called innuendo or insinuation.

Examples:

·        “I never consult doctors, for I hope to die without them.”

·        “A word to the wise is enough.”

 

IRONY

Irony is the figure of indirect reference by which we give the opposite sense of what we mean. Thus irony is not meant to be understood as it is.

Examples:

·        “See how these Christians love one another.”

·        The doctor killed the patient with his injection.

 

SARCASM

But when the ironical figure of reference is used without cover-up at all, and especially to communicate a ridicule or bitterness or contempt, what we get is Sarcasm.

Examples:

·        “God made him therefore let him pass for a man.” – Shakespeare.

·        The Negro is black from head to toe.

·        Doctors are murderers.

 

SATIRE

A satire is an extended figure of indirect reference which by holding situation of life to scorn and ridicule (unlike sarcasm) aims at improving or reforming or ameliorating them.

Examples:

·        The Animal Farm of George Orwell

·        Gulliver’s Travel of Swift.

 

EUPHEMISM

When we use agreeable words to express disagreeable truths, our figure of indirect reference is known as Euphemism. Simply put, it is a pleasant way of saying something unpleasant or describing an unpleasant truth.

Examples:

·        He is resting in peace. (He is dead).

·        I am going to the white house. (To the toilet)

 

LITOTES

When we indirectly give expression to an affirmative or positive point of fact, by negative reference to its contrary, our figure of speech is called litotes.

Examples:

“I am a citizen of no mean city.”

I am not ungrateful of your generosity.

 

PERIPHRASIS OR CIRCUMLOCUTION

When our figure of indirect reference expression is such that our reference is done in circle or in round-about manner, our figure of speech is called periphrasis or circumlocution.

Examples:

·        “He has passed his star that guided the mariner.”

·        A clouded mind is a confused mind.

 

FIGURES OF SOUND

Figures of sound are the figurative forms of language that allow us make an effective meaning, by a skillful arrangement of sound and sense.

 

PUN OR PARONOMASIA

When the arrangement of words of different senses but of the same sound is skillfully done in such a way as to achieve humorous expression, the figure of speech involved is called pun or paronomasia.

Example:

·        He passes for a man of honor, without being honored for a pass or man.

 

ONOMATOPOEIA OR ECHOISM

When words are used in such a way that by their sound one can easily make out their senses, the figure of speech involved is known as Onomatopoeia or echoism.

Examples:

·        “I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.”

·        The droning dum dum booms of age-old drums.

 

ALLITERATION

Alliteration is the skillful arrangement and repetition of the same consonant in several sounds of words.

Examples:

·        “After life’s fitful fever he sleeps well.”

·        “Full fathom five thy father lies.”

 

ASSONANCE

Assonance is the skillful arrangement and repetition of vowel in several sounds of words.

Example:

Avowed avarice is against account.

 

RHYTHM

When words are arranged in such a way, that their sound and sense, achieved by the disjunctive relation of long and short words, give music to the ear, the figure of sound involved is called rhythm.

Example:

“The cry when all is quiet. Their cry is heard then, when through the town a field-fresh breeze there files, when star with star holds converse in darkling skies, when static statutes breathe like living men.”

 

RHYME

Rhyme is the figure of skillful arrangement of similar sounds in the ending syllables of poetic or prosaic lines.

Examples:

An infant crying for the night.

An infant crying for the light.

 

FIGURES OF CONSTRUCTION

Figures of construction are the figurative forms of language linguistic expression that make it possible and meaningful for us to skillfully arrange or construct our words.

 

INTERROGATION

Interrogation is a construction by use of which significant questions are asked, but with rhetorical conditions. Such questions are only meant to stimulate and evoke particular effects in discourse, they are not meant to answer at least directly.

Examples:

·        “Hath not Jew eyes.” – Shakespeare.

·        “Who cares for Alexander the great but who does not bow down to his tutor Aristotle?”

 

EXCLAMATION

When words are constructed in such a way that figuratively they give vent to a sudden interjectional expression of emotion, the figure of speech used is known as exclamation.

Examples:

·        “How are the mighty fallen!”

·        “How great is your name O Lord our God!”

 

CHIASMUS

Chiasmus is a skillful arrangement of words by parallel construction of the inversion of terms of paired phrases.

Examples:

·        “Fair is foul and foul is fair.”

·        Goodness is health, heath is goodness.

 

HENDIADYS

When statements are constructed in such a way, that two words, respectively standing for either the names of a person, place or thing,, are linked to by the conjunction “and” to bring out a unique modification of meaning, different from an adjectival qualification of one by other, the figure of construction involved is called hendiadys.

Examples:

·        With joy and happiness you will draw water from the well of salvation.

·        “With joy and tidings fraught”

 

SYLLEPSIS

Syllepsis is the figure of construction by which we achieve a different sense in each specific case of expression by relating a term to a pair of terms.

Examples:

·        Neither Obi nor Ada knows the place.

·        Neither you nor he knows.

 

ZEUGMA

But when the figure of construction, we relate a term (usually a verbal) to any of the pair of terms to which it is suited, the grammatically incorrect figure of speech construction achieved is called zeugma.

Example:

·        “Kill the boys and the luggage.”

 

INVERSION OR HYPERBATION

When we alter the normal order of words in our statement, so as to construct a particular effect or emphasis, our figure of construction is called inversion or hyperbaton.

Examples:

·        “Out of evil cometh good”

·        “Sweet are the uses of adversity.”

 

TAUTOLOGY

Tautology is the figure of construction achieved by repetition, and therefore multiplication, of the same sense in needless words.

Examples:

·        The lawyers could not come to a final conclusion.

·        The vehicle turned at the bending corner.

·        “He enjoys the entire monopoly of this trade.

 

PLEONASM

This is a kind of tautology but in which a word bearing the extra meaning not available in the needless word or words can never be omitted, unlike in the tautology where this word (or words) of extra meaning or needless word or words can be omitted.

Examples:

·        “Such a thing cannot be possible.”

·        The teams are united together.

 

 

THE END